Explore the historical roots of Francafrique, a shadowy alliance between France and its former colonies. This is the first in a series of six articles, covering the period from colonization to the establishment of enduring power structures.
Introduction
The history of Francafrique is a tale of an unbroken relationship between France and its former African colonies—a complex bond, full of contrasts and paradoxes, that transcends the official independence of these countries. This term, often mentioned only in whispers, describes a network of political, economic, and military relationships where French interests overlap with the sovereignty of African nations. Francafrique, both invisible and ever-present, is a semi-official construction operating behind the scenes, shaping the policies of an entire region to maintain French influence and protect its interests.
The actors in this system of influence often operate from the shadows: special advisors, multinational corporations, intelligence networks, African political elites—all engaged in a mechanism that sustains France’s presence within African economies, even at the heart of political decision-making. As early as the 1960s, at the dawn of African independence, figures like Jacques Foccart, advisor on African affairs under General de Gaulle, developed strategies to maintain France’s privileged access to strategic resources—oil, uranium, precious woods—and to preserve the alliances that ensured this control. But behind the promises of independence, the shadow of neocolonialism persists, fed by opaque contracts, military agreements, and secret alliances.
At the heart of Francafrique is an economic dependence linking francophone African economies to France through the CFA franc, a currency used in several West and Central African countries. This currency, guaranteed by the French Treasury, is seen by some as a tool of economic stability, but to many, it remains a symbol of subjugation. This financial arrangement, far from true monetary independence, reflects the essence of Francafrique: limited autonomy, where each actor must navigate external interests.
From resource exploitation to military support, political interference to opaque economic ties, Francafrique has thrived for decades, revealing the tensions between African people’s need for freedom and French geopolitical ambitions. The challenges of Francafrique are rooted in deep contradictions: dependence versus emancipation, cooperation versus domination, historical legacy versus new aspirations.
In this power dance, France has never ceased to be a key player in Africa, influencing the trajectories of entire nations to serve its own interests. Francafrique is thus more than just a foreign influence policy; it’s a model of subtle manipulation and indirect control—a diplomatic, economic, and military scaffold that balances the ambitions of a former empire in a changing world. To understand the core of Francafrique, one must delve into this web of intrigues and intertwined interests that, rather than unraveling with time, has redefined itself to endure, making a clean break from colonial history difficult.
Part one: The historical roots of Francafrique
I. Colonization
Francafrique’s story begins long before the term itself and even before the official independence of African nations in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It roots in the 19th century when the major European powers, driven by ambitions of glory, profit, and global dominance, divided the African continent among themselves. At the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, Europe signed an agreement partitioning Africa, paving the way for a colonial exploitation system that would redefine African borders according to European interests.
France, having already conquered Algeria in 1830, embarked on a broader colonial campaign. At the heart of this imperialist expansion, it established two vast entities: French West Africa (AOF), encompassing territories like Senegal, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, and Burkina Faso, and French Equatorial Africa (AEF), covering Gabon, Congo, Chad, and Central Africa. This colonial division, dictated by European rivalries and domination logic, imposed itself on Africans, who suddenly found themselves under foreign authority, with no consultation or consent.
For Paris, these colonies primarily served as a source of raw materials and unprecedented enrichment. Gold, timber, agricultural land, mineral resources—all the treasures of the African subsoil—were methodically exploited to fuel the French economy. The so-called “civilizing mission” proclaimed by France concealed systematic pillaging policies. The colonial economic model was based on organized resource extraction and institutionalized forced labor. Local populations were conscripted, often by force, to work in mines, plantations, and infrastructure projects serving France’s interests. This forced labor, accompanied by violence and repression, remains one of colonialism’s darkest legacies.
The French colonial authorities established a rigid administrative system to maintain control. The “code of indigénat,” introduced in 1887, became one of the most emblematic pieces of repressive legislation, depriving Africans of all political rights and numerous fundamental freedoms. Governors appointed by Paris managed these territories like personal fiefdoms, enforcing metropolitan orders to maximize profit, often without regard for local populations. Africans, reduced to second-class citizens, endured decisions and regulations from a system they had never chosen.
II. The Berlin Conference and empire delimitation
The 19th century was marked by a frenzied race by European powers to gain control over African territories, where resources and land incited fierce competition. The Berlin Conference, held from November 1884 to February 1885, marked a decisive turning point in this race for colonization. Led by Germany’s Bismarck, major powers, including France, the UK, Belgium, and Portugal, met to establish an agreement on dividing Africa. This summit sealed Africa’s fate for decades, imposing a colonial order built on domination and arbitrary division of borders and peoples.
At Berlin, France secured a significant portion of the continent, gaining near-total control over West Africa and broad influence in Central Africa. These Berlin agreements allowed France to lay the groundwork for an administration that would enable it to profit from its territorial grip and exploit Africa’s resources. The conference essentially provided a large-scale map for European domination.
III. Power structures established and France’s grip on resources
As France’s colonial expansion in Africa intensified in the late 19th century, it established power structures ensuring both political domination and tight economic control over African resources. This system relied on a network of laws, agreements, and administrative practices consolidating France’s hold on the continent’s wealth. Far from being mere opportunism, these methods were part of a carefully crafted framework to extract and funnel resources to France, laying the groundwork for a form of neocolonialism that would survive long after official independence.
- A – Concession agreements, locking resource access
To maximize colonial profitability, France implemented a series of concession agreements that granted monopolies to French companies, excluding local or international competition. - B – Codes of indigénat and an exploitative system
To assert domination, French authorities introduced repressive laws, such as the Code of Indigénat. - C – Colonial currencies, instruments of economic control
Currencies introduced in French colonies—notably the CFA franc, created in 1945—played a fundamental role in perpetuating economic control. - D – Colonial administrators and local elites as guardians of french interests
France relied on a hierarchical administrative structure in its colonies. - E – A durable export-extraction system: toward institutionalized Francafrique
Colonial infrastructures—ports, railroads, and roads—were designed to ensure a steady flow of raw materials to France.
Summary
Notes and References
- Academic article : Ndiaye, Pap. « La condition noire : essai sur une minorité française. » Éditions Calmann-Lévy, 2008.
- Verschave, François-Xavier. La Françafrique : Le plus long scandale de la République. Stock, 1998.
- Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine. Histoire des colonisations : Des conquêtes aux indépendances, XIIIᵉ-XXᵉ siècle. Éditions La Découverte, 2019.
- Merle, Isabelle. La France coloniale : XIXᵉ-XXᵉ siècle. Armand Colin, 2012.
- Blanchard, Pascal et al. La Françafrique : L’histoire interdite. Éditions La Découverte, 2014.
- Bayart, Jean-François. L’État en Afrique : La politique du ventre. Fayard, 1989.
- Survie Association. La Françafrique, c’est quoi ? Disponible sur : www.survie.org
- Documentary : Françafrique, 50 ans sous le sceau du secret, réalisé par Patrick Benquet, 2010.
- Cooper, Frederick. Afrique depuis 1940 : Les défis de l’indépendance. Éditions Payot, 2014.
- Mazrui, Ali A. Le déclin de l’Afrique : de la domination à la dépendance. L’Harmattan, 1987.
- Martin, Guy. Africa in World Politics: A Pan-African Perspective. Africa World Press, 2002.
- Vallin, Victor. La Conférence de Berlin (1884-1885) : Partage de l’Afrique et naissance de la colonisation. Éditions L’Harmattan, 2012.
- Conklin, Alice L. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930. Stanford University Press, 1997.
- Bouquet, Christian. Géopolitique de la Françafrique. Armand Colin, 2010.
- Website: Ministère des Armées, Les tirailleurs sénégalais dans la Première Guerre mondiale. Disponible sur : www.defense.gouv.fr
